7 Cases for Inserting or Omitting Commas

7 Cases for Inserting or Omitting Commas 7 Cases for Inserting or Omitting Commas 7 Cases for Inserting or Omitting Commas By Mark Nichol Here are discussions of seven types of situations in which the presence or absence of a comma depends on various factors. 1. Word Function Whether a comma follows a word sometimes depends on the function of the word. For example, when now is employed at the head of a sentence to refer to the present time, there’s no reason to separate it from the rest of the statement: â€Å"Now you know.† But when now serves as an interjection to mark a transition or attract someone’s attention, it should be set off: â€Å"Now, have you had dinner?† (That same series of words could be used in a temporal sense, though: â€Å"Now have you had dinner?† suggests that the writer is impatient with the person the question is directed to.) 2. Before Because A sentence such as â€Å"I didn’t want to go because I hadn’t enjoyed myself last time† implies that the writer is explaining that the lack of enjoyment isn’t a factor in reluctance to attend an event; the reason for the reluctance will presumably follow. But if the meaning is opposite if the lack of enjoyment is the reason for the reluctance to attend a comma should precede because to signal that what follows the comma is a dependent clause: â€Å"I didn’t want to go, because I hadn’t enjoyed myself last time† Alternatively, the dependent clause can begin the sentence: â€Å"Because I hadn’t enjoyed myself last time, I didn’t want to go.† 3. Apposition An appositive is a word or phrase equivalent in meaning to an adjacent word or phrase, as in â€Å"She wrote to her brother, John†; â€Å"her brother† and â€Å"John† mean the same thing, so they are appositives, and the comma is necessary to set it off. However, if the woman has more than one brother, write â€Å"She wrote to her brother John.† Similarly, in â€Å"I met the writer, Jane Doe,† the comma is correct only if the writer has been alluded to before without mention of her name. Otherwise, the comma between the appositives suggests that only one writer exists. (And that puts me out of a job.) Even if writer is modified, the meaning differs: â€Å"I met the mystery writer, Jane Doe† suggests a previous reference to two or more writers, only one of whom writes mysteries, whereas â€Å"I met the mystery writer Jane Doe† simply specifies the genre in which Jane Doe writes. 4. Relative Clauses Commas may or may not be necessary, depending on whether each statement in an otherwise identical pair of sentences uses the word that or which: In â€Å"The house that Jack built is falling apart,† the phrase â€Å"that Jack built† is essential to the sentence, which specifies a particular house. In â€Å"The house, which Jack built, is falling apart,† the emphasis is on what is happening to the house, and the identity of the builder is a parenthetical, so the optional information should be bracketed by commas. â€Å"The house which Jack built is falling apart,† without commas, is also correct; it is identical in meaning to â€Å"The house that Jack built is falling apart.† However, the convention in American English is to avoid using which in this sense to prevent confusion with the meaning of the sentence with the parenthetical phrase. 5. Short Introductory Phrases Many people choose to omit a comma after introductory phrases of just a few words, as in â€Å"During the summer I like to travel.† However, such omission is arbitrary when such sentences are compared to those with longer introductory phrases and wrong in the case of transitional tags like finally, furthermore, and unfortunately and for the sake of consistency, a comma should follow any introductory word or phrase. 6. Short Independent Clauses In brief sentences such as â€Å"I will sort and you can staple† that consist of two independent clauses (complete thoughts that could stand on their own as distinct sentences), writers often choose to omit the otherwise obligatory comma before the conjunction. But just as in the case of short introductory phrases, there is the problem of where to draw the line. Does one establish a rule about how many words each clause must contain to dictate whether a comma is employed, or does one judge each sentence on its own? Let simplicity be your guide: Always include a comma. 7. Coordinate and Noncoordinate Adjectives When two or more adjectives sequentially modify a noun, depending on their relationship, they may or may not be separated by commas. To test whether to insert or omit commas, replace them with and. For example, â€Å"She was wearing a bright, cheerful expression† can also be written â€Å"She was wearing a bright and cheerful expression.† (The adjectives can be reversed in either case, too.) However, â€Å"She was wearing a dark green blouse† cannot be rendered â€Å"She was wearing a dark and green blouse,† because dark and green describe the blouse in combination, whereas bright and cheerful separately describe the expression. Also, in this case, the adjectives cannot be reversed: â€Å"She was wearing a green dark blouse† is illogical because dark modifies green, not blouse. Therefore, no comma should separate the two terms. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Punctuation category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:When to use "on" and when to use "in"36 Poetry Terms50 Synonyms for "Song"

Operational Definition of Behavior in a School Setting

Operational Definition of Behavior in a School Setting   An operational definition of behavior is a tool for understanding and managing behaviors in a school setting. It is an explicit definition that makes it possible for two or more disinterested observers to identify the same behavior when observed, even when it occurs in very different settings. Operational definitions of behavior are vital to defining a target behavior for both a  Functional Behavior Analysis  (FBA) and a  Behavior Intervention Program  (BIP). While operational definitions of behavior can be used to describe personal behaviors, they can also be used to describe academic behaviors. To do this, the teacher defines the academic behavior the child should exhibit. Why Operational Definitions Are Important It can be very difficult to describe a behavior without being subjective or personal. Teachers have their own perspectives and expectations which can, even inadvertently, become part of a description. For example, Johnny should have known how to line up, but instead chose to run around the room, assumes that Johnny had the capacity to learn and generalize the rule and that he made an active choice to misbehave. While this description may be accurate, it may also be incorrect: Johnny may not have understood what was expected or may have started running without intending to misbehave. Subjective descriptions of behavior can make it difficult for the teacher to effectively understand and address the behavior.  To understand and address the behavior, its extremely important to understand how the behavior  functions.  In other words, by defining behavior in terms of what can clearly be seen, we are able to also examine the antecedents and consequences of the behavior. If we know what happens before and after the behavior, we can better understand what instigates and/or reinforces the behavior. Finally, most student behaviors occur in multiple settings over time. If Jack tends to lose focus in math, hes likely to lose focus in ELA (English Language Arts) as well. If Ellen is acting out in first grade, chances are shell still be acting out (at least to some degree) in second grade. Operational definitions are so specific and objective that they can describe the same behavior in different settings and at different times, even when different people are observing the behavior. How to Create Operational Definitions The operational definition should become part of any data that is collected in order to establish a baseline for measuring behavioral change. This means the data should include metrics (numerical measures). For example, rather than writing Johnny leaves his desk during class without permission, its more useful to write Johnny leaves his desk two to four times per day for ten minutes at a time without permission. The metrics make it possible to determine whether the behavior is improving as a result of interventions. For example, if Johnny is still leaving his desk but now hes only leaving once a day for five minutes at a time, there has been a dramatic improvement. Operational definitions should also be part of the Functional Behavioral Analysis (FBA) and the Behavior Intervention Plan (known as the BIP). If you have checked off behavior in the special considerations section of the Individual Education Program (IEP) you are required by federal law to create these important behavior documents in order to address them.   Operationalizing the definition (determining why it happens and what it accomplishes) will also help you identify the replacement behavior.  When you can operationalize the behavior and identify the function, you can find a behavior that is incompatible with the target behavior, replaces the reinforcement of the target behavior, or cant be done at the same time as the target behavior.   Operational Definition of Behavior Non-operational (subjective) definition:  John blurts out questions in class. Which class? What does he blurt? How often does he blurt? Is he asking questions that relate to the class? Operational  definition, behavior:  John blurts out relevant questions without raising his hand three to five times during each ELA class. Analysis: John is paying attention to the content of the class, as he is asking relevant questions. He is not, however, focusing on the rules of classroom behavior. In addition, if he has quite a few relevant questions, he may be having trouble understanding the ELA content at the level its being taught. It is likely that John could benefit from a refresher on classroom etiquette and some ELA tutoring to be sure he is working at grade level and is in the right class based on his academic profile. Non-operational (subjective) definition:  Jamie throws temper tantrums during recess. Operational  Definition, behavior:  Jamie shouts, cries, or throws objects each time she participates in group activities during recess (three to five times per week).   Analysis: Based on this description, it sounds like Jamie only becomes upset when she is involved with group activities but not when she is playing alone or on playground equipment. This suggests that she may have difficulty in understanding the rules of play or social skills required for group activities, or that someone in the group is intentionally setting her off. A teacher should observe Jamies experience and develop a plan that helps her to build skills and/or changes the situation on the playground. Non-operational (subjective) definition:  Emily will read at the second-grade  level. What does that mean? Can she answer comprehension questions? What kind of comprehension questions?  How many words per minute? Operational Definition, academic: Emily will read a passage of 100 or more words at the 2.2 grade level with 96 percent accuracy. Accuracy in reading is understood  as the number of correctly read words divided by the total number of words. Analysis:  This definition is focused on reading fluency, but not on reading comprehension. A separate definition should be developed for Emilys reading comprehension. By separating these metrics, it will be possible to determine whether Emily is a slow reader with good comprehension, or whether she is having trouble with both fluency and comprehension.